In a 2003 case involving admissions practices at the University of Michigan, the Supreme Court reaffirmed its decision in Bakke by rejecting the use of

• A. a numerical goal.
• B. an exact numerical advantage.
• C. a plus factor.
• D. a racial measure.

Answer: (D)

The main idea is how race can be considered in college admissions: not as a fixed, race-based quota or measure, but as a flexible factor aimed at promoting diversity. The Court reaffirmed Bakke by rejecting a rigid racial metric that guarantees advantages based on race. In the 2003 Michigan cases, the problematic approach was a fixed system that assigns a set numeric advantage to certain racial groups. The Court said that kind of racial measure goes beyond what Bakke approved and is unconstitutional. By contrast, race can be weighed as one factor among many in a careful, individualized review to achieve diverse educational objectives.